Lecture summary The development of medicine in ancient Greece. teaching ✅ Free Download

Lecture summary The development of medicine in ancient Greece

Sources on history and medicine – written monuments (“Iliad” and “Odyssey” by Homer, “History in nine books” by Herodotus, “Collection of Hippocrates”, works of philosophers and historians), data from archeology, ethnography, and more.

Stages of development of healing and medicine in Ancient Greece.

Chronological framework

Literary sources and archaeological sites

Major achievements in the field of medicine and medicine

Cretan-Achaean period

III – II millennium BC

Sanitary facilities (ventilation, sewage pits, bathhouses,) of the Palace of Knossos (mid-3rd millennium BC)

High level of sanitary improvement in the capitals of the kingdoms on the island of Crete

Continuity in the transmission of knowledge between Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece

Iliad and Odyssey

Homer (oral tradition

– I X-VIII centuries. in the VI century. BC.

Treatment of wounds and injuries. Separate information about the structure of the human body 141 damage to the body was described by Homer. No autopsy was performed. In the army, the soldiers themselves and healers, who know the healing properties of plants, were engaged in treatment.

VIII – VI centuries. BC.

Written monuments:

fragments about medicine

in the works of historians and poets. Archaeological excavations asclepeions (from Asclepius)

(Trikka, Epidaurus, Kos)

Formation of medical schools

(Democritus, V – VI centuries BC). Separate information about healing in the writings of poets and historians: Sophocles, Aeschylus, Herodotus, Aristophanes

Healing developed in line with a single philosophical knowledge – natural philosophy (love for wisdom, for knowledge). All doctors were philosophers and many philosophers knew medicine.

The Rise of Medical Schools:

Understanding disease through

unity of the material world

and lifestyle of each

Ancient Greece (compiled in

Alexandria Library)

Generalization and systematization

schools. Development of descriptive

anatomy and surgery (Alexandria medical school)

CRETTO-ACHEIAN PERIOD (the end III – the end II thousand BC)

The center of ancient Greek civilization was Fr. Crete.

On the territory of the Palace of Knossos, sanitary facilities were discovered: a system of pipes made of baked clay for draining polluted waters, drainage channels, sewage pits, magnificent bathhouses, and ventilation systems for rooms.

High level of sanitary improvement.

Continuity of knowledge transfer between ancient Egypt and ancient Greece.

PREPOLICY PERIOD ( XI — IX centuries BC.)

The prepolis period was for a long time called "Homeric", since until the 19th century. the main information about him was given by the epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer.

Autopsies were not performed in Ancient Greece.

Homer's poems describe 141 injuries to the trunk and limbs (superficial and penetrating wounds, bruised wounds and suppuration resulting from the bites of poisonous snakes, etc.).Treatment of wounds consisted of removing arrows and other injuring objects, squeezing out blood and applying painkillers and hemostatic herbal powders, followed by bandaging.

Both the warriors themselves and skilled healers who knew the properties of healing herbs, “whatever the earth gives birth to” (Iliad. XI, 740), were engaged in healing and bandaging wounds in the ancient Greek army.

POLIS PERIOD ( VIII – VI centuries BC.)

In the VIII – VI centuries BC. city-states were formed throughout Greece – policies. They united free citizens who owned land and slaves.

The polis period of the history of Ancient Hellas is marked by two phenomena important for the history of medicine:

1) the formation of ancient Greek philosophy (natural philosophy), which took shape by the 6th century. BC.,

2) the formation of temple healing, which is associated with the strengthening of the slave system in Ancient Hellas, the strengthening of religion and, as a result, the formation of temples.

Temple healing in Ancient Hellas it developed against the background of empirical healing (which has existed for a long time).

The cult of Asclepius as a healer god was formed in ancient Greece by the 7th century. BC, at that time the first sanctuaries in his honor began to be erected.

The most majestic was the sanctuary of Asclepius. Its central building was Temple of Asclepius. On the territory of the sanctuary there were also temples in honor of Hygiene, Artemis, Aphrodite, Themis and Apollo. In the dungeons of the temples there were pools with mineral springs.

mineral spring, in the ode of which has a natural healing effect, and cypress grove (the air of which is healing) were obligatory guidelines when choosing places for the construction of temples in Ancient Hellas.

The water of the springs was used as one of the main remedies, and therefore they were considered sacred.

On the territory of some sanctuaries there were also a bathhouse, a library, a stadium, a theater. Numerous statues depicting the gods rose everywhere; monuments erected in honor of famous healers; steles on which texts were carved about cases of successful healing.

Thus, the sanctuaries of Asclepius in Ancient Hellas were not hospitals in our understanding, they were of a “healing and sanatorium” nature.

Healing combined empirical and magical tricks.

Main means treatments were: medicinal treatment, hydrotherapy, gymnastic exercises.

sacred healing: patients were introduced into a state of "artificial sleep" (a state of hypnosis or ecstasy), which was achieved by the use of drugs or methods of psychological influence.

HELLENISTIC PERIOD ( IV in. BC. — I in. BC.)

The Hellenistic period is the final, external stage in the development of ancient Greece.

The medicine of this era is characterized by the rapid development of anatomy and surgery.

Many outstanding achievements in these areas are closely related to the activities of the Alexandrian medical school.

Anatomy (from Greek. Anatome- dissection) has become an independent sector of medicine.

Of great importance for the development of naturally scientific knowledge of that time was the teaching of the largest ancient Greek philosopher and thinker Aristotle From Stagir. Aristotle's works on psychology, ethics, zoology, natural history, comparative anatomy of animals and medicine are an antique science encyclopedia

The founder of the descriptive anatomy in the Alexandria school is considered Gerofil from Halkidon. He is recognized as the first Greek, who began to open human corpses.

In the composition of the "O EYE", he described the vitreous body, shell and retina, and in the treatise "about the pulse" outlined the anatomy of the vessels (described the pulmonary artery, gave the names of the pulmonary veins) and the doctrine of arterial pulse, which considered the activity of the heart.

Among the most important achievements of the surgery of the Alexandrian period, the introduction of vascular dressings, the use of mandragging root for anesthesia, the invention of the catheter, carrying out complex operations on the kidney, liver and spleen, amputation limbs.

Thus, In the field of surgery, the Alexandria school made a significant step forward compared to the surgery of the classical period of the history of ancient Greece.

Classic period ( V. — IV explosive BC.)

In the classical period of the history of ancient Greece, the polis system has achieved the highest economic, political and cultural level.

There was a need for general education, which led to the emergence of numerous philosophical and then professional schools.

The medical knowledge of the classical history of Greece is evidenced by relatively extensive literature: fragments of compositions of poets and historians (Eschil, Sofokl, Euripid and others); Works of philosophers, among which the works of democrites occupy a special place; "Hippocrats Collection" is an ancient monument of the medical literature of ancient Greece.

In ancient Greece, hearing has developed for a long time in line with a single philosophical knowledge – naturophilosophy (Love for wisdom, to know). All the great healers were philosophers, and vice versa, many great philosophers knew medicine.

The first ancient Greek philosophers perceived the world as a whole. In their opinion, "no thing arises. And does not disappear, since the same nature is always preserved "(Aristotle).

The teachings of philosophers of ancient Greece.

Medicine connection with philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophers

Doctrine

Falez. From Mileta (Greek. T Hales, 624-546. BC.)

It believed that everything was made of moisture or water on which the Earth rests.

Anaximandr From Mileta (Greek. And naximanddros, approx. 611-546 BC.)

It believed that at the heart of the whole, a certain special period of war is the eternal and infinite matter, which is in constant motion.

Anaximen from the Mileta (Greek. Apakhhapev, Ok. 585-525. BC)

He considered the primary substance to the air from which the fire is formed during the discharge, and during concentration – wind, clouds, water, earth, stones.

Heraclit from Ephesus (Greek. Nega Kleitos, OK. 554-483 BC.)

I saw the essence of being in constant movement and continuous change, in the unity and eternal struggle of the opposites, believed that the embodiment of all transformations is the fire.

Levkipp from Mileta or Abder (Greek. Leukippos, approx. 500-440 BC.)

explained everything that happens in the world by the movement of the smallest particles – atoms (Greek. A1OTOZ – indivisible) in absolute void.

Democritis From Abder (Greek Demokritos, 460-371 BC)

Created a holistic antique atomic system. In his philosophical essays, there are arguments about embryology, diet, fever, prognostics, dog rabies, medicines, etc. It believed that all the vital processes, even thinking, can be explained by the movement and bonds of atoms.

Conclusion: Thus, in the classical period of the history of ancient Greece, medicine was inseparable from philosophy. Medicine began studying the main causes of disease and the disease itself, it contributed to the development of systematization of knowledge in medicine and led to the creation of theories of the disease and the origin of independent directions (anatomy and surgery).

Healing in ancient Eldead has long remained a family tradition. By the beginning of the classic period of the framework of family schools expanded: students began to be taken – not members of this kind.

So there are advanced medical schools.

Advanced medical schools of ancient Greece Table number 3.

Croton medical school

The medical school has reached his heyday in the VI century. BC. Its main achievements are formulated in the following theses:

1) the body is the unity of opposites,

2) a healthy organism is the result of the equilibrium of the opposite forces: dry and wet, warm and cold, sweet and bitter, etc., the domination of one of them is the cause of the disease,

3) The opposite is cured by the opposite.

An outstanding healer of the Crotone school was philosopher-Pythagorean Alkmeon From Croton. He opened the crossing of the visual nerves and the auditory channel (called later by the Eustachius pipe), wrote about the brain as a body of knowledge and the causes of certain diseases associated with the expiration of excess mucus.

Book

I became the pride of your city and brought him wide fame. This school developed a doctrine of four bodily juices (blood, mucus, light bile, black bile): Health understood as the result of their favorable mixing and, on the contrary, the unfavorable mixing of the juice was regarded as the cause of most diseases. Continuing the traditions of the Babylonian and Egyptian healers, the Book School has developed the doctrine of signs of diseases – symptoms and diagnosis.

The outstanding physician of this school was Euryphon from Knidos.

Sicilian

It was founded by Empedocles of Akragas.

Empedocles was a philosopher and politician, poet, orator, healer and priest. Fragments of his main work "On Nature" have been preserved, which outlined the natural-philosophical position of Empedocles: he believed that the essence of all things are fire, water, air and Earth; they are eternally changeless, unknowable and indestructible; they cannot transform one into another and only mix with each other mechanically; the diversity of the world is the result of the various proportions of this mixture.

Thus, Empedocles laid the foundations of the classical doctrine of the elements. The physicians of the Sicilian school recognized the heart as the main organ of consciousness; they identified the four bodily juices with the four states (hot, cold, wet to dry).

Kosskaya

The main medical school of ancient Greece of the classical period.

Following the natural-philosophical views, the healers of the Kos school perceived a person, his health and illnesses in close connection with the outside world, sought to maintain his natural healing powers in the body.

The disease in their understanding is not a punishment of the gods, but the result of the influences of everything around and malnutrition.

The healers of the Kos school actively developed the doctrine of the four bodily juices and body types; approved the foundations of medical ethics; developed the principles of observation and treatment at the bedside of the patient. Subsequently, these ideas formed the basis of the clinical direction in medicine.

Hippocrates, his life and teachings

1. Date of birth of Hippocrates

2. Birthplace of Hippocrates

3. Genealogy of Hippocrates

From the god Asclepius

4. One of the sayings of Hippocrates

"Medicine is the noblest of all the arts."

5. The name of the father of Hippocrates

6. At what age did Hippocrates take his first oath

7. What countries did Hippocrates visit

8. King, which country was healed by Hippocrates

9. In which city Hippocrates eradicated the plague

10. How many medicines did Hippocrates know

11. How many years did Hippocrates live

12. The basic principle of Hippocrates

The heyday of the Kos medical school is associated with the name of Hippocrates.

This legendary name became a symbol of medical art in Ancient Greece.

The information that has come down to us about the life of Hippocrates is very limited.

It is known that Hippocrates was born on about. Kos. According to his father, he belonged to a noble family. He led his genealogy from the son of Asclepius – Podaliria. As an itinerant healer, Hippocrates traveled extensively. The fame of his medical art spread in many states. He spent the last years of his life in Larissa (Thessaly), where he died around 370 BC. in the same year as Democritus, according to some sources at the 83rd, and according to others – at the 104th year of his life.

Information about the source "Hippocratic collection"

The question of what works Hippocrates left behind is still unclear, because all the writings of the ancient Greek doctors of the classical period that have come down to us are anonymous.

History did not save any text, where the authorship of the hippocracy would have been.

The fact is that in ancient times, medical knowledge in Eldead remained and passed into family medical schools those. From parents to children and single disciples who wished for the fee to study the art of healing. As a result, this art remained inside a narrow circle of dedicated.

Anonymity of the first ancient Greek medical texts can be explained by the fact that at first they were compiled as if "for home use", and the author simply "knew in the face."

The first collection of ancient Greek medical works was compiled many years after the death of the Hippocrata – in the III century. BC. In the famous Alexandrian repository of manuscripts, where, from all over the world, the manuscripts of scientists were overlooked, which were systematized, studied, translated and rewriting.

Over time, the number of manuscripts exceeded 700 thousand papyrus scrolls. There were among them and 72 medical writings recorded in Greek.

All of them were nameless: The story did not keep a single script, in which the authorship of the hypocratic or other doctors of the ancient Greece of the classical period would be indicated. Moreover, they all differed in the style of presentation, the manner of the letter, the depth of presentation, according to the philosophical and medical position, up to the controversy and directly opposite opinions, i.e. Were written in various authors.

About 280 BC, i.e. For many decades after the death of the hippocracy, all these nameless medical texts were combined by a single meeting.

In honor of the legendary doctor of ancient Greece, he was called "Hypocrats Collection". Thus, the Alexandrian scientists have kept for the descendants of the composition of the ancient Greek doctors who lived in the V – III centuries. BC.

During the 18th century, the text of the collection corresponded from hand in Greek, Latin, Arabic and other languages. And only in 1525 (after the invention of typography), he was first published in Rome in Latin, a year later – in Venice in Greek and became one of the most published works in Europe.

What works of this collection can belong to the hippocracy, it is still unclear.

Most researchers assume that the hippocrates belongs to the most outstanding work of the "Hippocratian Collection". First of all, these are "aphorisms" and similar "prognostics", "epidemics", "about air, waters, localities", and possibly some others.

Gippocrat works

"A f about r and z m" (finished thought)

Consist of eight sections. They contain dietary and medical instructions for the treatment of internal diseases, surgery and objects.

"PR O GN O S T I K A" (before and knowledge)

It is an outstanding essay on ancient Greek therapy. It describes in detail the elements that constitute the forecast of the time (observation, inspection and survey of the patient), and are highlighted by the basics of observation and treatment in the patient's bed.Many sayings given in the Prognostic have become classics, for example, the description of the face of a dying patient: “the nose is sharp, the eyes are sunken, the temples are depressed, the skin on the forehead is hard, stretched and dry, and the color of the whole face is green, black, or pale, or leaden. ".

"E p i d e m i i i"

are close in spirit to Prognostics. The word "epidemics" in ancient Greece meant diseases that were widespread among the people. These are endemic swamp fevers, consumption, paralysis, colds, skin, eye and other diseases. Parts I and III contain 42 of the most interesting and instructive case histories. They give a concrete idea of ​​the origins of the clinical approach in medicine in ancient Greece, when the doctor observed the patient on a daily basis and described his condition and treatment.

"About airs, waters, places"

the first work that has come down to us, in which various forms of the impact of the surrounding nature on the human body are generalized from the standpoint of materialistic philosophy. A large place in this work is given to the analysis of the causes of diseases, which are divided into two groups:

causes of diseases general for all people in a given area, depending on the specific conditions of the surrounding nature;

individual reasons determined by the way of life of each.

Lifestyle in Ancient Greece.

A healthy lifestyle has been in the center of attention of doctors at all times. In ancient Greece, doctors also paid close attention to this issue.

Lifestyle was given special importance. Physical education, hardening and personal hygiene were on a par with compulsory literacy and music education.

Each man was brought up hardy and courageous, so that in a moment of danger, with a weapon in his hands, to stand up for the defense of his policy.

The most severe was the upbringing of the Spartans. In Sparta, weak and sick little children were thrown into the sea from the rock of Taygetus.

Healthy children after the age of seven ceased to belong to their parents and until the age of 30 were brought up by warriors in strict restrictions and under strict supervision.

Shaved bald, barefoot, in the same dress in the heat and cold, they comprehended the military art of Spartan, practicing fisticuffs, wrestling and gymnastics.

After 30 years, the Spartan was prescribed family life, but she did not stop constant gymnastic exercises.

Spartan women were also involved in gymnastics: running, jumping, throwing the discus and spears were indispensable components of their upbringing, because healthy warriors should have healthy mothers.

Spartan women were highly respected, they had all the rights and shared all the troubles on an equal footing with men.

Texts of ancient Greece of medical content.

The idea of ​​the high development in ancient Greece of the doctrine of dressings, surgical devices, the treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations, head injuries is given by the following works:

"On repositioning joints"Many sayings given in the Prognostic have become classics, for example, the description of the face of a dying patient: “the nose is sharp, the eyes are sunken, the temples are depressed, the skin on the forehead is hard, stretched and dry, and the color of the whole face is green, black, or pale, or leaden. ".

"E p i d e m i i i"are close in spirit to Prognostics. The word "epidemics" in ancient Greece meant diseases that were widespread among the people. These are endemic swamp fevers, consumption, paralysis, colds, skin, eye and other diseases. Parts I and III contain 42 of the most interesting and instructive case histories. They give a concrete idea of ​​the origins of the clinical approach in medicine in ancient Greece, when the doctor observed the patient on a daily basis and described his condition and treatment.

"About airs, waters, places"the first work that has come down to us, in which various forms of the impact of the surrounding nature on the human body are generalized from the standpoint of materialistic philosophy. A large place in this work is given to the analysis of the causes of diseases, which are divided into two groups:

causes of diseases 250general 50 for all people in a given area, depending on the specific conditions of the surrounding nature;

individual

reasons determined by the way of life of each.

Lifestyle in Ancient Greece.

A healthy lifestyle has been in the center of attention of doctors at all times. In ancient Greece, doctors also paid close attention to this issue.

Lifestyle was given special importance. Physical education, hardening and personal hygiene were on a par with compulsory literacy and music education.

Each man was brought up hardy and courageous, so that in a moment of danger, with a weapon in his hands, to stand up for the defense of his policy.

The most severe was the upbringing of the Spartans. In Sparta, weak and sick little children were thrown into the sea from the rock of Taygetus. Healthy children after the age of seven ceased to belong to their parents and until the age of 30 were brought up by warriors in strict restrictions and under strict supervision.

Shaved bald, barefoot, in the same dress in the heat and cold, they comprehended the military art of Spartan, practicing fisticuffs, wrestling and gymnastics.

After 30 years, the Spartan was prescribed family life, but she did not stop constant gymnastic exercises.

Spartan women were also involved in gymnastics: running, jumping, throwing the discus and spears were indispensable components of their upbringing, because healthy warriors should have healthy mothers. Spartan women were highly respected, they had all the rights and shared all the troubles on an equal footing with men.Texts of ancient Greece of medical content.

The idea of ​​the high development in ancient Greece of the doctrine of dressings, surgical devices, the treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations, head injuries is given by the following works:

"On repositioning joints"

– described the "bench (Hippocrates)" – a lever device for repositioning dislocations.

"About fractures", "About wounds of the head" – describes a complex surgical dressing known as the "Hippocratic cap", still used in surgery.

"Hippocratic collection" –

is an encyclopedia of ancient Greek medicine.

He combined the works of various medical schools. It lists more

herbal medicines and

means of animal origin.

Also, the Hippocratic Collection contains five essays on medical ethics and the rules of medical life in ancient Greece. These are "Oath", "Law", "About the doctor", "About decent behavior" and "Instructions".

In the process of learning, the future healer had to educate in himself and constantly improve contempt for money, conscientiousness, modesty, determination.

The healer must learn to keep in mind medicines, how to formulate them and how to use them correctly.

Along with high professional requirements, great importance was attached to the appearance of the healer and his behavior in society.

At the end of his studies, the future healer took the “Oath”, which he inviolably followed throughout his life.

Medical Texts of Ancient Greece

Essays on surgery

"About fractures"

"About head wounds"

"On repositioning joints"

Essays on surgery

"About fractures", "About head wounds", "About repositioning of joints"

give a harmonious idea of ​​the high development in ancient Greece of the doctrine of dressings, surgical devices, the treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations, head injuries, including the facial skull. The essay “On the Adjustment of the Joints” describes the “bench (Hippocrates)” – a lever device for reducing dislocations. The elaborate surgical dressing known as the "Hippocratic cap" is still used in surgery today.

"Encyclopedia

ancient greek ( medicine" "Hippocratic Collection" combining the works of various medical schools, is an encyclopedia of ancient Greek medicine of the classical period.It lists more than 250 medicines of vegetable and 50 means of animal origin. Works dedicated to medical ethics:

"Law"

Historically, the first form of medical ethics were the moral principles of the healing of the hippocratic outlined in the "Law"

"About the doctor"

The appearance of the healer and his behavior in society- "For those who do not have a good view in their body, the crowds are considered unable to have the right concern about others." Therefore, to the healer likes to "keep himself purely, have good clothes and rub in fragrant ointments, for all this is usually nice for the sick. It should be fair in all circumstances, because in many cases you need help of justice. "

"On the beneficial behavior" In the process of learning, the future healer was to educate in himself and constantly improve "contempt for money, conscientiousness, modesty, determination, tidy, abundance of thoughts, knowledge of all that is useful and necessary for life, disgust to the vocabulary, denial of superstitious fear of the gods, Divine superiority. After all, the philosopher is equal to God. " The healer must learn to keep the medication in memory, methods for their compilation and proper use, not to lose in the patient's bed, often visit it and carefully observe deceptive signs of change. "All this should do calmly and skillfully, hiding from a sick much at their disposals, ordering with a fun and clear eyes, what should be done and disgusting the patient from his wishes with perseverance and rigor.""Insertion"

Worry about the health of the patient, the healer should not begin with care about his remuneration, as "pay attention to this is harmful to the patient." Moreover, sometimes it seems to be treated "for a gift, considering the grateful memory above minutes of fame. If the case will be presented to assist a stranger or poor assistance, then such a way to deliver it is better to reproach saved than to ascend those in danger. " "Oath"Obtaining learning, the future healer gave an "oath", which intensifically followed throughout life, for "who has time in the sciences and lags behind in morality, is more harmful than useful."

When for the first time was compiled an "oath", it is not known. In orally, it passed from one generation to another and in the main features was created to the hippocracy. In the III century. BC e. The "oath" entered the "Hipporates".

Along with the medical "oath", in ancient Greece there were a legal "oath", witnesses of witnesses and many others. Thus, the "oath" given by the healer at the end of training, on the one hand, defended patients, being a guarantee of high medical morality, and on the other hand, provided to the healer full confidence of society. The laws of medical ethics in ancient Greece were strictly strictly.Today in each country there is its own "oath". Keeping the overall spirit of an ancient Greek "oath", each of them corresponds to the modern level of development of medical science and practice, reflects national characteristics and general trends in world development.

I swear by Apollo doctor, Asclepius, Gigia and Panakes and all the gods and goddesses, taking them to witnesses, to be honest, respectively, my forces and my understanding, the following oath and written obligation: to consider me with medical art on a par with my parents, share with him Support and in case of needing to help his needs; Its offspring is considered to be their brothers, and this is an art if they want to study it, teach them free and without any contract; Instructions, oral lessons and everything else in the teaching to inform their sons, sons of their teacher and students associated with the obligation and an oath by the law of medical, but to anyone else.

I am aiming the patient's regime for their benefit, with my forces and my understanding, refraining from causing any harm and injustice. I will not give anyone asking me a deadly tool and I will not show ways for such an idea; Similarly, I do not hand any abutient pessary woman.

Purely and undefiled shall I conduct my life and my art. In no case will I make sections in those suffering from stone disease, leaving it to people involved in this matter. Whatever house I enter, I will enter there for the benefit of the sick, being far from everything intentional, unjust and harmful, especially from love affairs with women and men, free and slaves.

Whatever, during treatment – and also without treatment – I see or hear about human life from what should never be divulged, I will keep silent about it, considering such things a secret. To me, who inviolably fulfills the oath, may happiness be given in life and in art, and glory among all people for all eternity; but to the one who transgresses and gives a false oath, let it be the opposite of this.

HELLENISTIC PERIOD

IV

in. BC. —

I

in. BC.)

The Hellenistic period is the final, external stage in the development of ancient Greece.

The medicine of this era is characterized by the rapid development of anatomy and surgery. Many outstanding achievements in these areas are closely related to the activities of the Alexandrian medical school.

Anatomy (from the Greek. anatome – dissection) has become an independent branch of medicine. Of great importance for the development of natural scientific knowledge of that time was the teaching of the largest ancient Greek philosopher and thinker

Aristotle from Stagira. Aristotle's writings on psychology, ethics, zoology, natural history, comparative animal anatomy and medicine are an encyclopedia of ancient science